2019中央電大知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)法形成性考核冊(cè)答案必考重點(diǎn)【完整版.doc

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1、電大知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)法考試資料形成性考核冊(cè)作業(yè)1一、名詞解釋（每小題2分，共20分）1、知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)法：知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)法是調(diào)整因創(chuàng)造、使用智力成果而產(chǎn)生的，以及早確認(rèn)、保護(hù)和形式治理成果所有人的知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)的過程中所發(fā)生的各種社會(huì)關(guān)系的法律規(guī)范的總稱2、商品裝潢：是指在商品或其包裝、容器以及其他附著物上所進(jìn)行的裝飾。3、商品商標(biāo)：指使用于商品之上的商標(biāo)，根據(jù)使用者的不同，分為制造商標(biāo)和銷售商標(biāo)。4、證明商標(biāo)：也稱保證商標(biāo)，是指由對(duì)某種商品或服務(wù)具有檢測和監(jiān)督能力組織所控制，而由其以外的人使用在商品或服務(wù)上，用以證明該商品或服務(wù)的原產(chǎn)地、原料、制造方法、質(zhì)量、精確度或其他特定品質(zhì)的商品商標(biāo)或服務(wù)商標(biāo)。5、注冊(cè)商標(biāo)：經(jīng)

2、國家商標(biāo)主管機(jī)關(guān)核準(zhǔn)注冊(cè)的商標(biāo)。二、簡答題（每小題10分，共40分1、請(qǐng)按你的理解給知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)概念下個(gè)定義。答：知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)是治理成果所有人和使用人給予自己所擁有的智力成果而依法享有的各項(xiàng)民事權(quán)利的總和，包括著作權(quán)、商標(biāo)權(quán)、專利權(quán)、閥線圈、發(fā)明權(quán)以及其他科技成果權(quán)。知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)是一個(gè)隨著科學(xué)技術(shù)、文學(xué)藝術(shù)的發(fā)展而不斷拓展和深化的概念2、請(qǐng)?jiān)囀鲋R(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)的法律性質(zhì)。知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)是一種無形財(cái)產(chǎn)權(quán)，是一種特殊的民事權(quán)利，這就是知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)的法律性質(zhì)。3、請(qǐng)?jiān)囀鲋R(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)的范圍。知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)的范圍，有廣義和狹義兩種。廣義的知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)范圍，為兩個(gè)主要的保護(hù)知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)的國際公約所界定。第一：1967年簽訂的世界知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)組織公約指出，知

3、識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)應(yīng)包括下列權(quán)利：1關(guān)于文學(xué)、藝術(shù)和科學(xué)作品的權(quán)利；2關(guān)于表演藝術(shù)家的表演、錄音和廣播的權(quán)利；3關(guān)于人類在一切領(lǐng)域內(nèi)的發(fā)明的權(quán)利；4關(guān)于科學(xué)發(fā)現(xiàn)享有的權(quán)利；5關(guān)于工業(yè)品外觀設(shè)計(jì)的權(quán)利；6 關(guān)于商品商標(biāo)、服務(wù)商標(biāo)、商號(hào)及其他商業(yè)標(biāo)記的權(quán)利；7關(guān)于制止不正當(dāng)競爭的權(quán)利；8其他一切來自工業(yè)、科學(xué)及文學(xué)、藝術(shù)領(lǐng)域的智力創(chuàng)作活動(dòng)所產(chǎn)生的權(quán)利。第二：1995年1月1日成立的世界貿(mào)易組織（WTO）的與貿(mào)易有關(guān)的知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)協(xié)議規(guī)定的范圍，包括：1版權(quán)與鄰接權(quán)2商標(biāo)權(quán)3地理標(biāo)志權(quán)4工業(yè)品外觀設(shè)計(jì)觀5專利權(quán)6集成電路布圖設(shè)計(jì)權(quán)7未公開的信息專有權(quán)，主要是商業(yè)秘密權(quán).目前基本上國際上都是以這兩個(gè)協(xié)議所界定的范圍為

4、知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)的范圍。 狹義的知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)，指傳統(tǒng)意義上的知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)，即專利權(quán)、商標(biāo)權(quán)、著作權(quán)。卓越人社區(qū) o4你認(rèn)為知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)法有哪些作用（最少四條）。 答：（1）為智力成果完成人的權(quán)益提供了法律保障，調(diào)動(dòng)了人們從事科學(xué)技術(shù)研究和文學(xué)藝術(shù)作品創(chuàng)作的積極性和創(chuàng)造性。（2）為智力成果的推廣應(yīng)用和傳播提供了法律機(jī)制，為智力成果轉(zhuǎn)化為生產(chǎn)力，運(yùn)用到生產(chǎn)建設(shè)上去，產(chǎn)生了巨大的經(jīng)濟(jì)效益和社會(huì)效益。（3）為國際經(jīng)濟(jì)技術(shù)貿(mào)易和文化藝術(shù)的交流提供了法律準(zhǔn)則，促進(jìn)人類文明進(jìn)步和經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展。（4）知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)法律制度作為現(xiàn)代民商法的重要組成部分，隊(duì)對(duì)完善我國法律體系，建設(shè)法治國家具有重大意義。三、案例（40分）某公司新生產(chǎn)一種環(huán)保型

5、純天然礦泉水。經(jīng)試銷顧客反響很好，銷售業(yè)績不斷上升，為防止他人假冒并樹立市場形象，取得信譽(yù)，公司決定申請(qǐng)商標(biāo)注冊(cè)。公司想起名注冊(cè)商標(biāo)為“神怡”，但又怕別人利用法律侵害其商標(biāo)權(quán)益，如何注冊(cè)也不清楚。如果你作為商標(biāo)代理人將提出哪些建議，并提供注冊(cè)咨詢服務(wù)。要求：寫一篇咨詢意見書（包括怎樣注冊(cè)、程序是什么、如何防止權(quán)益被侵害、可采取哪些方案。）根據(jù)我國商標(biāo)法及相關(guān)法規(guī)，我作為商標(biāo)代理人，謹(jǐn)對(duì)貴公司申請(qǐng)“神怡”牌礦泉水注冊(cè)商標(biāo)一事，出具咨詢意見如下： 一、 怎樣申請(qǐng)注冊(cè)商標(biāo)及申請(qǐng)程序。我國商標(biāo)法規(guī)定，我國國內(nèi)申請(qǐng)人可以通過兩種渠道辦理商標(biāo)注冊(cè)，一是由申請(qǐng)人委托商標(biāo)代理機(jī)構(gòu)代為辦理注冊(cè)商標(biāo)申請(qǐng)事宜，二是

6、由申請(qǐng)人直接辦理。貴公司可以選擇其中之一進(jìn)行辦理。若選擇委托辦理，貴公司首先應(yīng)當(dāng)注意選擇具有商標(biāo)代理資質(zhì)的商標(biāo)代理機(jī)構(gòu)就代理事項(xiàng)與之協(xié)商一致，簽訂委托代理合同，出具授權(quán)委托書，并向該機(jī)構(gòu)交納代理費(fèi)以及貴公司企業(yè)法人營業(yè)執(zhí)照等有效證件的復(fù)印件。若選擇直接辦理，則應(yīng)持企業(yè)介紹信、企業(yè)法人營業(yè)執(zhí)照及有關(guān)申請(qǐng)文件，直接到商標(biāo)局辦理注冊(cè)商標(biāo)申請(qǐng)手續(xù)。無論采用哪種渠道，都必須填寫統(tǒng)一的商標(biāo)注冊(cè)申請(qǐng)書報(bào)商標(biāo)局，并提交商標(biāo)圖樣及申請(qǐng)人身份證講的復(fù)印件。商標(biāo)局在收到商標(biāo)注冊(cè)申請(qǐng)之后，將依法對(duì)該申請(qǐng)進(jìn)行形式審查和實(shí)質(zhì)審查，經(jīng)審查，對(duì)符合規(guī)定的，予以初步審定并予以公告。自公告之日起三個(gè)月內(nèi)無異議者，予以核準(zhǔn)注冊(cè)。對(duì)

7、不符合規(guī)定的，予以駁回。申請(qǐng)人不服的，可以自收到駁回通知之日起15日內(nèi)向商標(biāo)復(fù)審委員會(huì)申請(qǐng)復(fù)審。對(duì)復(fù)審結(jié)果不服的，可以自收到復(fù)審結(jié)果通知書之日起30日內(nèi)向人民法院起訴。二、 關(guān)于防止貴公司合法權(quán)益受損害的措施這個(gè)問題的實(shí)質(zhì)是貴公司一旦獲得“神怡”牌礦泉水注冊(cè)商標(biāo)后，應(yīng)采取哪些措施予以保護(hù)的問題。關(guān)于商標(biāo)保護(hù)，我國法律規(guī)定主要有行政保護(hù)和司法保護(hù)兩種方式。行政保護(hù)是指商標(biāo)管理機(jī)關(guān)通過行政程序依法查處商標(biāo)侵權(quán)行為來保護(hù)商標(biāo)專用權(quán)。貴公司一旦發(fā)現(xiàn)自己擁有的注冊(cè)商標(biāo)權(quán)益受到損害，如市場上出現(xiàn)假冒產(chǎn)品，就應(yīng)當(dāng)及時(shí)向商標(biāo)管理機(jī)關(guān)報(bào)告，并積極搜集相關(guān)證據(jù)，配合商標(biāo)管理機(jī)關(guān)打擊任何人對(duì)貴公司注冊(cè)商標(biāo)合法權(quán)益的

8、侵權(quán)行為。司法保護(hù)是指司法機(jī)關(guān)通過司法程序依法審理商標(biāo)侵權(quán)案件，制裁商標(biāo)侵權(quán)人，打擊假冒注冊(cè)商標(biāo)犯罪來對(duì)商標(biāo)專用權(quán)予以保護(hù)。如有必要，貴公司依法直接向人民法院起訴，請(qǐng)求司法保護(hù)。此外，貴公司也應(yīng)加強(qiáng)注冊(cè)商標(biāo)自我保護(hù)，包括通過學(xué)習(xí)增強(qiáng)商標(biāo)保護(hù)意識(shí)，配備商標(biāo)管理人員，采取各種預(yù)防措施，發(fā)生侵權(quán)事件后及時(shí)請(qǐng)求行政保護(hù)和司法保護(hù)等。商標(biāo)事務(wù)所商標(biāo)代理人：年 月 日知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)法形成性考核冊(cè)作業(yè)2王某在黑龍江省齊齊哈爾市于1990年4月1日向中國專利局受理處有幾名為“保溫鞋”的實(shí)用新型申請(qǐng)文件，郵戳日為1990年4分月1日，中國專利局受理處收到該申請(qǐng)文件的日期為1990年4月6日。李某在北京于1990年4月

9、2日向中國專利局額受理處直接遞交一份與王某同樣的發(fā)明創(chuàng)造的專利申請(qǐng)文件，也名為“保溫鞋”的實(shí)新型專利申請(qǐng)。 問：如何處理？為什么？答：本題的考點(diǎn)是依法判斷王某與李某誰是該項(xiàng)專利的最先申請(qǐng)人，該項(xiàng)專利的申請(qǐng)權(quán)應(yīng)當(dāng)歸誰所有。我國專利法規(guī)定，兩個(gè)以上主題相同的發(fā)明創(chuàng)造分別向?qū)＠姓块T提出申請(qǐng)的，實(shí)行先申請(qǐng)?jiān)瓌t。即誰是最先申請(qǐng)人，誰就是請(qǐng)求權(quán)人。確定的方法是，以申請(qǐng)日作為申請(qǐng)時(shí)間先后的判斷標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，以國務(wù)院專利行政部門受到專利申請(qǐng)文件之日為申請(qǐng)日，但是申請(qǐng)文件是郵寄的，以寄出的郵戳日為申請(qǐng)日。在本題中，王某是以郵寄方式申請(qǐng)的，郵戳日是1990年4月1日，因此他的申請(qǐng)日依法應(yīng)確定為1990年4月1日。而李

10、某是以直接遞交方式申請(qǐng)的，遞交時(shí)間是1990年4月2日，申請(qǐng)日為1990年4月2日。由此可見，王某是該項(xiàng)專利的最先申請(qǐng)人，因此國家專利局應(yīng)確定該項(xiàng)專利的申請(qǐng)權(quán)歸王某所有。 知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)法形成性考核冊(cè)作業(yè)3案例答案要點(diǎn)：關(guān)于故宮博物館國務(wù)院和某出版社糾紛的案例，考核的是分析問題、解決問題的能力。要求寫以原告的代理人身份寫一篇代理意見和以被告的律師身份寫一篇答辯意見。本題無標(biāo)準(zhǔn)答案，只要言之有理，能自圓其說，予以發(fā)揮即可 代理意見參考要點(diǎn)：我受某某律師事物所委托，擔(dān)任原告故宮博物館的代理人，現(xiàn)根據(jù)民法通則和著作權(quán)法等法律法規(guī)的規(guī)定，以事實(shí)為基礎(chǔ)，以法律為準(zhǔn)繩，發(fā)表以下代理意見： 1、故宮博物館將900

11、多套珍貴文物進(jìn)行攝影、測量，編寫文字形成作品并經(jīng)過“兩家出版社”出版，從而享有該作品的著作權(quán)。理由：（1）被告非法使用的原告790張圖片是經(jīng)過原告故宮博物館對(duì)文物進(jìn)行攝影、編寫文字而成，原告對(duì)每一張圖片享有攝影作品的著作權(quán)。（2）原告對(duì)900多張圖片配以文字，予以整理編輯，擁有對(duì)900套圖片文字匯編而成的匯編作品即出版物的著作權(quán)。 2、出版社侵犯了故宮博物館的著作權(quán)，構(gòu)成了權(quán)利的侵犯，應(yīng)當(dāng)賠禮道歉，賠償損失。理由：（1）出版社未經(jīng)原告許可，擅自使用其圖片，不僅是一種剽竊抄襲的侵權(quán)行為，而且是一種未經(jīng)著作權(quán)人許可，以營利為目的，復(fù)制發(fā)行原告作品的侵權(quán)行為。結(jié)合教材283頁內(nèi)容。被告的行為侵犯了原

12、告的使用權(quán)，不屬于著作權(quán)法中合理使用的情形。結(jié)合教材314-316內(nèi)容(2)被告未經(jīng)原告同意，擅自匯編790張圖片，侵犯了原告的復(fù)制權(quán)和演繹權(quán)中的匯編權(quán)。結(jié)合教材288頁內(nèi)容論述。（3）被告侵犯了原告的作品完整權(quán)，原告擅自使用790張圖片，編寫宋清瓷器圖錄一書，是對(duì)包含900張圖片的原告出版作品的篡改。結(jié)合教材281頁內(nèi)容（4）被告侵犯了原告取得報(bào)酬權(quán)。原告向社會(huì)出租圖片資料版權(quán)費(fèi)400遠(yuǎn)，加工制作費(fèi)400元，被告擅自使用圖片，造成原告經(jīng)濟(jì)損失 3、根據(jù)著作權(quán)法等法規(guī)的規(guī)定，被告應(yīng)當(dāng)立即公開賠禮道歉，賠償損失等民事責(zé)任。原告的作品系珍貴文物，因此被告應(yīng)按每張800遠(yuǎn)乘2予以賠償，應(yīng)賠償共計(jì)元。

13、 答辯參考要點(diǎn)：我接受某某律師事務(wù)所，作為被告出版社的辯護(hù)人，就故宮博物館訴出版社侵犯著作權(quán)一案，答辯如下： 1、出版人未侵犯故宮的著作權(quán)，不付賠償責(zé)任，原告的理由有漏洞。(請(qǐng)對(duì)以上原告代理意見從四個(gè)方面進(jìn)行反駁，闡述了個(gè)人理由，接合教材有關(guān)內(nèi)容根據(jù)自己理解論述)。 2、該書有作者，出版社只是出版了他人的作品，出版社沒有侵權(quán)圖書的著作權(quán)。作者非法使用原告圖片790張，是作者天津某教授具有侵犯原告著作權(quán)行為，應(yīng)為此承擔(dān)相應(yīng)的民事責(zé)任，不應(yīng)由出版社承擔(dān)。原告應(yīng)起訴作者的侵權(quán)行為 3、故宮博物館享有該作品的著作權(quán)，但原告故宮博物館提出的按每張800元乘2方式予以賠償，沒有法律依據(jù)，賠償額顯然跟我國法

14、律規(guī)定相違背。作為被告的辯護(hù)人認(rèn)為這種賠償方式是不應(yīng)該成立的。就賠償問題來說，這個(gè)價(jià)格不應(yīng)該這樣計(jì)算，相關(guān)法律法規(guī)并沒有規(guī)定翻兩倍的算法，對(duì)于賠償損失范圍，著作權(quán)法規(guī)定，以被害人的實(shí)際損失為限。 知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)法形成性考核冊(cè)作業(yè)4一、名詞解釋：1、知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)：是治理成果所有人和使用人給予自己所擁有的智力成果而依法享有的各項(xiàng)民事權(quán)利的總和，包括著作權(quán)、商標(biāo)權(quán)、專利權(quán)、閥線圈、發(fā)明權(quán)以及其他科技成果權(quán)。知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)是一個(gè)隨著科學(xué)技術(shù)、文學(xué)藝術(shù)的發(fā)展而不斷拓展和深化的概念2、商標(biāo)權(quán):根據(jù)我國商標(biāo)法的有關(guān)規(guī)定，商標(biāo)權(quán)也可稱為商標(biāo)專用權(quán)是指商標(biāo)注冊(cè)人對(duì)其注冊(cè)商標(biāo)所享有的權(quán)利。3、專利權(quán)：是發(fā)明基于發(fā)明創(chuàng)造，通過申請(qǐng)

15、專利的方法，公開自己發(fā)明創(chuàng)造的技術(shù)內(nèi)容，經(jīng)審查程序而取得的專有有權(quán)，是發(fā)明人在一定期限內(nèi)對(duì)其發(fā)明享有的獨(dú)占權(quán)。4、著作權(quán)：也稱版權(quán)，指作者對(duì)其創(chuàng)作的文學(xué)藝術(shù)和科學(xué)作品依法享有的權(quán)利。5、侵犯商業(yè)秘密行為：是指行為人采取不當(dāng)手段獲取、披露、使用權(quán)利人的商業(yè)秘密或者違反合同約定擅自允許他人使 用別人的商業(yè)秘密的行為。二、填空：1、國家知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)局 2、自愿注冊(cè)強(qiáng)制注冊(cè) 3、商標(biāo)國際注冊(cè)逐一國家注冊(cè) 4、個(gè)案認(rèn)定被動(dòng)認(rèn)定 5、新穎性創(chuàng)造性實(shí)用性 6、形狀圖案色彩 7、責(zé)任視為作者 8、同意報(bào)酬同意報(bào)酬 9、一種直接 三、選擇 1、AB 2、B 3、BCD 4、ABD 5、ABC 6、AD 7、D 8、

16、ABCD 四、簡答 1、申請(qǐng)注冊(cè)的商標(biāo)應(yīng)當(dāng)具備的條件（1）申請(qǐng)注冊(cè)的商標(biāo)必須具備構(gòu)成要素；（2）申請(qǐng)注冊(cè)的商標(biāo)應(yīng)具備顯著性；（3）申請(qǐng)注冊(cè)的商標(biāo)不得使用法律所禁止使用的標(biāo)志。（4）申請(qǐng)注冊(cè)的商標(biāo)不得與他人在同一種或者類似商品或者服務(wù)上已經(jīng)注冊(cè)或者初步審定商標(biāo)相同或者近似。（5）申請(qǐng)注冊(cè)的商標(biāo)不得與被撤銷或者注銷未滿一年的注冊(cè)商標(biāo)相同或者近似。2、授予發(fā)明專利和實(shí)用新型專利權(quán)的實(shí)質(zhì)條件我國專利法第22條也規(guī)定：“授予專利權(quán)的發(fā)明和實(shí)用新型，應(yīng)當(dāng)具備新穎性、創(chuàng)造性和實(shí)用性”。（1）新穎性，是指在申請(qǐng)日以前沒有同樣的的發(fā)明或?qū)嵱眯滦偷膰鴥?nèi)外出版物上公開發(fā)表過，在國內(nèi)公開使用過或者以其他方式為公眾所知

17、，也沒有同樣的發(fā)明或者實(shí)用新型由他人向?qū)＠痔岢錾暾?qǐng)并且記載在申請(qǐng)日以后公布的專利申請(qǐng)文件中。”（2）中國專利法第22條第3款規(guī)定：“創(chuàng)造性，是指同申請(qǐng)日前已有的技術(shù)相比，該發(fā)明有突出的實(shí)質(zhì)性特點(diǎn)和顯著的進(jìn)步，該實(shí)用新型有實(shí)質(zhì)性特點(diǎn)和進(jìn)步?！保?）實(shí)用性包括實(shí)踐性、再現(xiàn)性和有益性.3、著作權(quán)人享有哪些著作人身權(quán)利 答：根據(jù)著作權(quán)法第10條規(guī)定，著作人身權(quán)主要包括發(fā)表權(quán)、署名權(quán)、修改權(quán)、保護(hù)作品完整權(quán)等四項(xiàng)人身權(quán)利。發(fā)表權(quán)：是作者決定是否將作品公之于眾的權(quán)利。署名權(quán)：是作者在自己創(chuàng)作的作品和復(fù)制件上標(biāo)記姓名的權(quán)利。修改權(quán)：是指修改或授權(quán)他人修改作品的權(quán)利。保護(hù)作品完整權(quán)：是保護(hù)作品不受歪曲篡改的

18、權(quán)利。五、論述無標(biāo)準(zhǔn)答案，結(jié)合自己學(xué)習(xí)體會(huì)作答，以下僅供參考。 1、原因：考慮：（1）經(jīng)濟(jì)因素：如剽竊他人新技術(shù)能夠減少開發(fā)成本，不用支付他人新技術(shù)的許可使用費(fèi)，從而降低產(chǎn)品的成本，獲得巨大的利益。如可以使自己的產(chǎn)品提高技術(shù)含量，使老產(chǎn)品更新?lián)Q代，迅速占領(lǐng)國內(nèi)國際市場，贏得巨大的商機(jī)與經(jīng)濟(jì)利益。（2）精神因素：通過剽竊他人新技術(shù)，搶先進(jìn)行專利申請(qǐng)，成為專利權(quán)人，獲得精神上的滿足。（只要大家從“追名逐利” 上分析原因即可） 2、重要性：（1）保護(hù)發(fā)明創(chuàng)造推動(dòng)技術(shù)創(chuàng)新，調(diào)動(dòng)人們從事專利開發(fā)研究的積極性和創(chuàng)造性。（2）促進(jìn)新技術(shù)的推廣使用，促使智力成果轉(zhuǎn)化為生產(chǎn)力，產(chǎn)生巨大的經(jīng)濟(jì)利益和社會(huì)效益；（3

19、）促進(jìn)新技術(shù)的公開和傳播，促進(jìn)人類文明的進(jìn)步。（4）為外國投資提供保障，促進(jìn)國際交流；（5）為智力成果的完成人的權(quán)益提供保證 3、保護(hù)措施：（1）自我保護(hù)（2）司法保護(hù)：行政救濟(jì)和司法救濟(jì)（予以展開即可）請(qǐng)您刪除一下內(nèi)容，O(_)O謝謝！2016年中央電大期末復(fù)習(xí)考試小抄大全，電大期末考試必備小抄，電大考試必過小抄Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter released from nerve endings (terminals) in both the peripheral and the central nervous systems. It is synt

20、hesized within the nerve terminal from choline, taken up from the tissue fluid into the nerve ending by a specialized transport mechanism. The enzyme necessary for this synthesis is formed in the nerve cell body and passes down the axon to its end, carried in the axoplasmic flow, the slow movement o

21、f intracellular substance (cytoplasm). Acetylcholine is stored in the nerve terminal, sequestered in small vesicles awaiting release. When a nerve action potential reaches and invades the nerve terminal, a shower of acetylcholine vesicles is released into the junction (synapse) between the nerve ter

22、minal and the effector cell which the nerve activates. This may be another nerve cell or a muscle or gland cell. Thus electrical signals are converted to chemical signals, allowing messages to be passed between nerve cells or between nerve cells and non-nerve cells. This process is termed chemical n

23、eurotransmission and was first demonstrated, for nerves to the heart, by the German pharmacologist Loewi in 1921. Chemical transmission involving acetylcholine is known as cholinergic. Acetylcholine acts as a transmitter between motor nerves and the fibres of skeletal muscle at all neuromuscular jun

24、ctions. At this type of synapse, the nerve terminal is closely apposed to the cell membrane of a muscle fibre at the so-called motor end plate. On release, acetylcholine acts almost instantly, to cause a sequence of chemical and physical events (starting with depolarization of the motor endplate) wh

25、ich cause contraction of the muscle fibre. This is exactly what is required for voluntary muscles in which a rapid response to a command is required. The action of acetylcholine is terminated rapidly, in around 10 milliseconds; an enzyme (cholinesterase) breaks the transmitter down into choline and

26、an acetate ion. The choline is then available for re-uptake into the nerve terminal. These same principles apply to cholinergic transmission at sites other than neuromuscular junctions, although the structure of the synapses differs. In the autonomic nervous system these include nerve-to-nerve synap

27、ses at the relay stations (ganglia) in both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic divisions, and the endings of parasympathetic nerve fibres on non-voluntary (smooth) muscle, the heart, and glandular cells; in response to activation of this nerve supply, smooth muscle contracts (notably in the gut

28、), the frequency of heart beat is slowed, and glands secrete. Acetylcholine is also an important transmitter at many sites in the brain at nerve-to-nerve synapses. To understand how acetylcholine brings about a variety of effects in different cells it is necessary to understand membrane receptors. I

29、n post-synaptic membranes (those of the cells on which the nerve fibres terminate) there are many different sorts of receptors and some are receptors for acetylcholine. These are protein molecules that react specifically with acetylcholine in a reversible fashion. It is the complex of receptor combi

30、ned with acetylcholine which brings about a biophysical reaction, resulting in the response from the receptive cell. Two major types of acetylcholine receptors exist in the membranes of cells. The type in skeletal muscle is known as nicotinic; in glands, smooth muscle, and the heart they are muscari

31、nic; and there are some of each type in the brain. These terms are used because nicotine mimics the action of acetylcholine at nicotinic receptors, whereas muscarine, an alkaloid from the mushroom Amanita muscaria, mimics the action of acetylcholine at the muscarinic receptors. Acetylcholine is the

32、neurotransmitter produced by neurons referred to as cholinergic neurons. In the peripheral nervous system acetylcholine plays a role in skeletal muscle movement, as well as in the regulation of smooth muscle and cardiac muscle. In the central nervous system acetylcholine is believed to be involved i

33、n learning, memory, and mood. Acetylcholine is synthesized from choline and acetyl coenzyme A through the action of the enzyme choline acetyltransferase and becomes packaged into membrane-boundvesicles. After the arrival of a nerve signal at the termination of an axon, the vesicles fuse with the cel

34、l membrane, causing the release of acetylcholine into thesynaptic cleft. For the nerve signal to continue, acetylcholine must diffuse to another nearby neuron or muscle cell, where it will bind and activate areceptorprotein. There are two main types of cholinergic receptors, nicotinic and muscarinic

35、. Nicotinic receptors are located at synapses between two neurons and at synapses between neurons and skeletal muscle cells. Upon activation a nicotinic receptor acts as a channel for the movement of ions into and out of the neuron, directly resulting indepolarizationof the neuron. Muscarinic recept

36、ors, located at the synapses of nerves with smooth or cardiac muscle, trigger a chain of chemical events referred to as signal transduction. For a cholinergic neuron to receive another impulse, acetylcholine must be released from the receptor to which it has bound. This will only happen if the conce

37、ntration of acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft is very low. Low synaptic concentrations of acetylcholine can be maintained via a hydrolysis reaction catalyzed by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. This enzyme hydrolyzes acetylcholine into acetic acid and choline. If acetylcholinesterase activity is i

38、nhibited, the synaptic concentration of acetylcholine will remain higher than normal. If this inhibition is irreversible, as in the case of exposure to many nerve gases and some pesticides, sweating, bronchial constriction, convulsions, paralysis, and possibly death can occur. Although irreversible

39、inhibition is dangerous, beneficial effects may be derived from transient (reversible) inhibition. Drugs that inhibit acetylcholinesterase in a reversible manner have been shown to improve memory in some people with Alzheimers disease. abstract expressionism, movement of abstract painting that emerg

40、ed in New York City during the mid-1940s and attained singular prominence in American art in the following decade; also called action painting and the New York school. It was the first important school in American painting to declare its independence from European styles and to influence the develop

41、ment of art abroad. Arshile Gorky first gave impetus to the movement. His paintings, derived at first from the art of Picasso, Mir, and surrealism, became more personally expressive. Jackson Pollocks turbulent yet elegant abstract paintings, which were created by spattering paint on huge canvases pl

42、aced on the floor, brought abstract expressionism before a hostile public. Willem de Koonings first one-man show in 1948 established him as a highly influential artist. His intensely complicated abstract paintings of the 1940s were followed by images of Woman, grotesque versions of buxom womanhood,

43、which were virtually unparalleled in the sustained savagery of their execution. Painters such as Philip Guston and Franz Kline turned to the abstract late in the 1940s and soon developed strikingly original stylesthe former, lyrical and evocative, the latter, forceful and boldly dramatic. Other impo

44、rtant artists involved with the movement included Hans Hofmann, Robert Motherwell, and Mark Rothko; among other major abstract expressionists were such painters as Clyfford Still, Theodoros Stamos, Adolph Gottlieb, Helen Frankenthaler, Lee Krasner, and Esteban Vicente. Abstract expressionism present

45、ed a broad range of stylistic diversity within its largely, though not exclusively, nonrepresentational framework. For example, the expressive violence and activity in paintings by de Kooning or Pollock marked the opposite end of the pole from the simple, quiescent images of Mark Rothko. Basic to mo

46、st abstract expressionist painting were the attention paid to surface qualities, i.e., qualities of brushstroke and texture; the use of huge canvases; the adoption of an approach to space in which all parts of the canvas played an equally vital role in the total work; the harnessing of accidents tha

47、t occurred during the process of painting; the glorification of the act of painting itself as a means of visual communication; and the attempt to transfer pure emotion directly onto the canvas. The movement had an inestimable influence on the many varieties of work that followed it, especially in th

48、e way its proponents used color and materials. Its essential energy transmitted an enduring excitement to the American art scene. Science and technology is quite a broad category, and it covers everything from studying the stars and the planets to studying molecules and viruses. Beginning with the G

49、reeks and Hipparchus, continuing through Ptolemy, Copernicus and Galileo, and today with our work on the International Space Station, man continues to learn more and more about the heavens. From here, we look inward to biochemistry and biology. To truly understand biochemistry, scientists study and

50、see the unseen bystudying the chemistry of biological processes. This science, along with biophysics, aims to bring a better understanding of how bodies work from how we turn food into energy to how nerve impulses transmit.analytic geometry, branch ofgeometryin which points are represented with resp

51、ect to a coordinate system, such asCartesian coordinates, and in which the approach to geometric problems is primarily algebraic. Its most common application is in the representation of equations involving two or three variables as curves in two or three dimensions or surfaces in three dimensions. F

52、or example, the linear equationax+by+c=0 represents a straight line in thexy-plane, and the linear equationax+by+cz+d=0 represents a plane in space, wherea, b, c,anddare constant numbers (coefficients). In this way a geometric problem can be translated into an algebraic problem and the methods of al

53、gebra brought to bear on its solution. Conversely, the solution of a problem in algebra, such as finding the roots of an equation or system of equations, can be estimated or sometimes given exactly by geometric means, e.g., plotting curves and surfaces and determining points of intersection. In plan

54、e analytic geometry a line is frequently described in terms of its slope, which expresses its inclination to the coordinate axes; technically, the slopemof a straight line is the (trigonometric) tangent of the angle it makes with thex-axis. If the line is parallel to thex-axis, its slope is zero. Tw

55、o or more lines with equal slopes are parallel to one another. In general, the slope of the line through the points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) is given bym= (y2-y1) / (x2-x1). The conic sections are treated in analytic geometry as the curves corresponding to the general quadratic equationax2+bxy+cy2+dx+ey+

56、f=0, wherea, b, fare constants anda, b,andcare not all zero. In solid analytic geometry the orientation of a straight line is given not by one slope but by its direction cosines, , , and , the cosines of the angles the line makes with thex-, y-,andz-axes, respectively; these satisfy the relationship

57、 2+2+2= 1. In the same way that the conic sections are studied in two dimensions, the 17 quadric surfaces, e.g., the ellipsoid, paraboloid, and elliptic paraboloid, are studied in solid analytic geometry in terms of the general equationax2+by2+cz2+dxy+exz+fyz+px+qy+rz+s=0. The methods of analytic ge

58、ometry have been generalized to four or more dimensions and have been combined with other branches of geometry. Analytic geometry was introduced by RenDescartesin 1637 and was of fundamental importance in the development of thecalculusby Sir Isaac Newton and G. W. Leibniz in the late 17th cent. More

59、 recently it has served as the basis for the modern development and exploitation ofalgebraic geometry. circle, closed plane curve consisting of all points at a given distance from some fixed point, called the center. A circle is a conic section cut by a plane perpendicular to the axis of the cone. T

60、he term circle is also used to refer to the region enclosed by the curve, more properly called a circular region. The radius of a circle is any line segment connecting the center and a point on the curve; the term is also used for the length r of this segment, i.e., the common distance of all points

61、 on the curve from the center. Similarly, the circumference of a circle is either the curve itself or its length of arc. A line segment whose two ends lie on the circumference is a chord; a chord through the center is the diameter. A secant is a line of indefinite length intersecting the circle at t

62、wo points, the segment of it within the circle being a chord. A tangent to a circle is a straight line touching the circle at only one point, the point of contact, or tangency, and is always perpendicular to the radius drawn to this point. A circle is inscribed in a polygon if each side of the polyg

63、on is tangent to the circle; a circle is circumscribed about a polygon if all the vertices of the polygon lie on the circumference. The length of the circumference C of a circle is equal to (see pi) times twice the radius distance r, or C=2r. The area A bounded by a circle is given by A=r2. Greek ge

64、ometry left many unsolved problems about circles, including the problem of squaring the circle, i.e., constructing a square with an area equal to that of a given circle, using only a straight edge and compass; it was finally proved impossible in the late 19th cent. (see geometric problems of antiqui

65、ty). In modern mathematics the circle is the basis for such theories as inversive geometry and certain non-Euclidean geometries. The circle figures significantly in many cultures. In religion and art it frequently symbolizes heaven, eternity, or the universe.整理范文，僅供參考?xì)g迎您下載我們的文檔資料可以編輯修改使用致力于合同簡歷、論文寫作、PPT設(shè)計(jì)、計(jì)劃書、策劃案、學(xué)習(xí)課件、各類模板等方方面面，打造全網(wǎng)一站式需求覺得好可以點(diǎn)個(gè)贊哦如果沒有找到合適的文檔資料，可以留言告知我們哦10